Science

Main thing

Science is a systematic approach to acquiring reliable knowledge about the world, including the natural world, human society, and abstract formal systems. The process of science typically involves the following steps:

1. Observation: Scientists observe and describe phenomena. Example: Darwin observed variations in the beaks of Galapagos finches.

2. Question: Based on observations, scientists ask questions. Example: Why do finches have different beak shapes?

3. Hypothesis: Scientists propose tentative explanations for the phenomena. Example: Beak shape might be adapted to different food sources.

4. Prediction: Scientists use the hypothesis to make predictions. Example: Finches with larger beaks should be found where harder seeds are prevalent.

5. Testing: Scientists test the predictions through experiments or further observations. Example: Comparing beak sizes in different environments.

6. Analysis: Scientists analyze the data gathered from testing. Example: Statistically analyzing beak size measurements.

7. Conclusion: Based on the analysis, scientists draw conclusions about the hypothesis. Example: Concluding that beak shape is indeed adapted to food source.

8. Publication: Scientists publish their findings so others can review and build upon the work. Example: Darwin published "On the Origin of Species".

9. Replication: Other scientists attempt to replicate the findings. Example: Subsequent studies have confirmed Darwin's findings.

What separates science from other ways of knowing, like personal experience or religious revelation, is its emphasis on empirical evidence, logical reasoning, and rigorous testing. Scientific claims must be testable and open to revision based on new evidence.

Terms

• Abstract formal systems - theoretical structures, often mathematical or logical, that are studied independently of any specific application. Fields like logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, systems science, and statistics can be viewed as the study of different kinds of abstract formal systems.

• Empirical evidence - information acquired by observation or experimentation. Example: fossil records provide empirical evidence for evolution.

• Hypothesis - a proposed explanation for some phenomenon, often based on limited evidence. Example: The hypothesis that the universe is expanding.

• Critical thinking - the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment. Example: Critically evaluating the methodology of a study.

• Scientific method - a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Example: Using the scientific method to test the efficacy of a new drug.

An analogy

Science is like a map-making endeavor. Just as cartographers survey the landscape, make measurements, and gradually refine their maps, scientists make observations, conduct experiments, and gradually build a more accurate picture of reality. And just as maps are always open to revision based on new data, scientific understanding is always subject to change based on new evidence.

A main misconception

A common misconception is that science is constantly changing its mind, suggesting that scientific knowledge is unreliable. In reality, while scientific understanding does evolve, core scientific theories and facts (like the theory of evolution, the germ theory of disease, or the existence of atoms) are supported by such vast bodies of evidence that they are unlikely to be completely overturned, barring a major paradigm shift. Science "changes its mind" in the sense of refining and expanding its understanding, not in the sense of arbitrarily flip-flopping.

The history

1. In ancient Greece (around 400 BC), Aristotle laid the foundations for the scientific study of logic, systematic observation, and classification of knowledge. However, Aristotelian science also included non-empirical methods and untestable ideas.

2. During the Islamic Golden Age (8th-14th centuries), scholars made significant advances in empirical observation and experimentation, particularly in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. However, science was still heavily intertwined with philosophy and theology.

3. During the Scientific Revolution (1500s-1700s), science began to emerge as a distinct way of knowing, emphasizing empirical evidence and mathematical reasoning. However, many scientists still held religious and metaphysical beliefs that influenced their scientific thinking.

4. In the 19th century, science became increasingly professionalized and specialized. New disciplines like geology, biology, and psychology emerged. Science was increasingly seen as a progressive, secular endeavor. However, it was still largely a Western, male-dominated enterprise.

5. In the 20th century, science became a massive, global enterprise. New theories like relativity and quantum mechanics revolutionized physics. Science became increasingly interdisciplinary and collaborative. However, science also faced new ethical challenges, from nuclear weapons to genetic engineering.

6. Today, science continues to evolve, with new fields like data science and neuroscience emerging. Science is grappling with issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion. And science is facing new challenges, from climate change to pandemics, that require both scientific innovation and societal action.

"Science is the acceptance of what works and the rejection of what does not. That needs more courage than we might think." - Jacob Bronowski (1908-1974), British mathematician and science historian.

Three cases how to use it right now

1. When faced with a decision, consider what evidence is available to support different options. Seek out reliable sources of information and think critically about their credibility.

2. If you encounter a claim that seems surprising or counterintuitive, suspend judgment until you've examined the evidence. Be open to changing your mind based on new information.

3. When discussing complex issues, consider perspectives and insights from different scientific disciplines. Interdisciplinary thinking can lead to more comprehensive and nuanced understanding.

Interesting facts

• The word "scientist" was first used in 1833 by William Whewell.

• The scientific paper with the most authors had over 5,000 contributors.

• The fastest journal rejection occurred within 27 minutes of submission.

• The first recorded use of a control group in an experiment was in the Book of Daniel, written around 600 BC.

• The most prolific mathematician in history was Paul Erdős, who published around 1,500 papers before his death in 1996.