Modern science

Main thing

Modern science, which emerged in the 20th and 21st centuries, represents a significant advancement from the science of earlier eras. While earlier periods focused mainly on phenomena observable at human scales, modern science has expanded to investigate both the very small (quantum mechanics, particle physics) and the very large (relativity, cosmology). It is also characterized by increasing specialization and the emergence of new interdisciplinary fields like astrophysics, biochemistry, and neuroscience that combine the tools and insights of multiple disciplines.

Key features that distinguish modern science include:

1. Revolutionary theories like quantum mechanics and relativity that fundamentally altered our understanding of space, time, matter and energy, overturning classical Newtonian physics.

2. The synthesis of evolution, genetics, and biochemistry into a comprehensive understanding of life at the molecular level, from DNA to proteins to cells and organisms.

3. The rise of Big Science, involving massive instruments (particle accelerators, space telescopes), global collaborations, and large-scale, long-term research projects.

4. Powerful new instruments and techniques, from radio telescopes and electron microscopes to DNA sequencing and fMRI, that have vastly expanded the frontiers of observable phenomena.

5. Increasing integration of science with technology, medicine, and social policy to address complex challenges like climate change, infectious diseases, and the impacts of artificial intelligence.

These features reflect a broader shift in modern science towards greater abstraction, quantification, and manipulation of nature, as well as increasing social embeddedness and real-world relevance.

Terms

• Classical Newtonian physics – The system of physical laws and principles, based on the work of Isaac Newton, that describe the motion of bodies under the influence of forces, including the laws of motion, universal gravitation, and classical mechanics. Example: Using Newton's laws to calculate the trajectory of a projectile or the orbit of a planet.

• Astrophysics – A branch of astronomy that applies the laws of physics and chemistry to understand the birth, life and death of stars, planets, galaxies, nebulae and other objects in the universe. Example: Using spectroscopy to determine the composition of distant stars and galaxies.

• Quantum mechanics – A fundamental theory describing the nature of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels, characterized by wave-particle duality, uncertainty, and probabilistic outcomes. Example: The development of quantum computers and cryptography.

• Relativity – Einstein's theories that space and time are not absolute but are relative to the observer's frame of reference, with consequences like time dilation, length contraction, and gravitational time dilation. Example: GPS satellites must correct for relativistic effects to give accurate positioning.

An analogy

If science before the 20th century was like living in a cave, aware only of the immediate surroundings, modern science is like exploring the entire continent, mapping its features and resources in great detail. However, just as the cave dweller could not venture into the oceans, modern science still has frontiers it cannot yet cross, from the interiors of black holes to the ultimate nature of consciousness. The exploration continues, but vast uncharted territories remain.

A main misconception

One misconception is that modern science has replaced all earlier scientific knowledge. While modern theories like relativity and quantum mechanics have overturned some classical notions, much of earlier science remains valid and essential within its domain of application. Newtonian mechanics, for example, is still used for most engineering and space exploration purposes. What modern science provides is a larger framework for unifying and extending this knowledge, not discarding it entirely.

The history

1. Early 20th century: Planck and Einstein lay foundations of quantum theory and relativity. Rutherford discovers the atomic nucleus. Morgan and others establish modern genetics.

2. Mid-20th century: Quantum electrodynamics and the Standard Model unify fundamental forces and particles. DNA structure elucidated. Radio astronomy and space probes begin exploration of the cosmos. Plate tectonics theory unifies earth science.

3. Late 20th century: Standard cosmological model of the Big Bang and cosmic expansion established. Techniques like PCR, genetic sequencing, and fMRI revolutionize molecular biology and neuroscience. Complexity theory and chaos theory applied across disciplines.

4. Early 21st century: Higgs boson discovered, completing the Standard Model. LIGO detects gravitational waves from colliding black holes. CRISPR enables precision gene editing. AlphaFold AI solves protein folding problem. Multimessenger astronomy and exoplanet discoveries expand understanding of the universe.

"The saddest aspect of life right now is that science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom." - Isaac Asimov, biochemist and science fiction writer

Three cases how to use it right now

1. When evaluating medical advice or health claims, don't just rely on personal anecdotes or traditional folk wisdom. Look for evidence from controlled clinical trials using objective biomarkers, brain scans, and other direct measures, not just self-reported symptoms. Modern biomedical science leverages a wide range of instruments and methods beyond the physician's senses.

2. When thinking about the environmental impact of your daily activities, consider not just obvious visible pollution like litter or smog, but also invisible chemical contaminants, greenhouse gas emissions, and effects on distant ecosystems. Modern environmental science uses sensitive instruments to detect substances and changes everywhere from the upper atmosphere to the deep ocean to the DNA of living things.

3. When marveling at modern technologies like smartphones, GPS, or mRNA vaccines, appreciate the decades of basic scientific research in fields like quantum physics, relativity, genomics, and materials science that made them possible. The path from fundamental discoveries to practical applications is often long and unpredictable, requiring sustained support for curiosity-driven research with no obvious near-term payoff.

Interesting facts

• The gravitational waves detected by LIGO in 2015, from the collision of two black holes 1.3 billion light years away, produced a peak power output about 50 times that of the entire visible universe. Modern astronomy probes some of the most extreme physical events in the cosmos.

• The Large Hadron Collider accelerates protons to over 99.9999991% the speed of light, producing collisions that mimic conditions less than a billionth of a second after the Big Bang. Modern particle physics re-creates the state of the early universe to study its fundamental building blocks.

• In 2022, the James Webb Space Telescope began observing the universe in infrared light with a mirror over 6 times the area of the Hubble Space Telescope. Its unprecedented sensitivity allows it to see some of the first galaxies that formed after the Big Bang over 13 billion years ago.

• Quantum entanglement, a phenomenon Einstein called "spooky action at a distance," has been demonstrated over distances of hundreds of kilometers. China's Micius satellite has used quantum-entangled photons to establish hack-proof communication links and quantum-encrypted video calls between continents.

• DeepMind's AlphaFold AI system, trained on genomic and structural data, has predicted the 3D structures of over 200 million proteins from more than 1 million species, covering nearly every known protein on Earth. This modern bioinformatics feat is expected to accelerate drug discovery and biotechnology.